Turning Point Descriptions:

Harnessing Fire-

The controlled use of fire was a major technological turning point in the history of human kind. The use of fire improved the quality of human life by providing a source of warmth, light, protection, cooked foods, and the ability to produce better stone tools. Fire became a focus of social and religious life. The purposeful use of fire made global migrations possible because only those groups that learned the full range of fire’s uses survived.

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Origins of Language-

Language, distinct from other forms of communication is considered a uniquely human achievement. The use of language enabled humans to coordinate the behavior of larger groups and to manipulate their environment. Language helped humans to gain preeminence over other species, interact socially, and invent. It was a key factor in the long process that led to the accumulation of knowledge that made complex societies possible.

Human Migration Out of Africa-

East Africa was initially the homeland of Homo erectus, who displaced earlier humanlike populations. Evidence suggests that these hominids gradually spread outward from Africa and then settled Southwestern Asia, West Asia, and Europe. From there, humankind migrated across East Asia, to the Americas, and Australia. By analyzing human DNA, paleontologists and archaeologists now believe that all humans alive today can trace their ancestry to Africa.

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The Neolithic Revolution-

Globally, the Neolithic Revolution occurred at different times and in different places. The term Neolithic Revolution implies the deliberate planting of grains, berries and nuts for later harvesting, and the domestication of animals. It took thousands of years to spread to key population centers in Asia, Europe, and Africa, and arose independently in the Americas. The first societies with food production technologies were the first civilizations to develop writing, technologies, and government. The Neolithic Revolution dramatically altered human social relationships and interactions that led to the characteristics of civilizations.

First Cities Arose-

The rise of early civilizations was closely associated with cities. Over time, depending upon where a group lived and its technological skills, villages were established. Neolithic villages became centers of specialized crafts and trade. Agricultural surpluses led to growth and the need to organize public work systems that supported agriculture. Cities were the center of most classical civilizations in Afro-Eurasia and the Americas.

Age of Metals-

One of the checkpoints between prehistory and historical times is the development of metallurgy. This extended time period probably began in southwest Asia where gold, copper, tin and iron were worked. The development of metal working skills such as hearting, hammering, and smelting allowed for the construction of tools. First bronze and later iron tools enabled farmers to work more productively and efficiently. During the Age of Metals, there was a progression from copper to bronze to iron technologies. The demand for metal tools and objects became an important impetus for trade throughout the ancient world.

Earliest Writing Systems-Summer-

Scholars regard writing as an early example of technology or specialized knowledge. The development of writing systems was a key ingredient in the rise of early civilizations. Cuneiform, probably the earliest writing system, was developed in Mesopotamia to record economic, political, literary, and religious information. Several hundred symbols were needed to keep records. As Mesopotamian trade and commerce expanded, cuneiform was used throughout much of western Asia. The development of writing systems meant that information could be transferred and preserved. As more people became literate, law codes were promulgated to maintain societal law and order.

Hammurabi Code-

The Babylonian king Hammurabi promulgated one of the earliest legal codes. In his own words, he did so to: cause justice to prevail, to destroy wickedness and evil; and to prevent the strong from oppressing the weak. He established legal procedures for law courts, regulated property rights, and set forth family members' duties. By today’s standards the Code of Hammurabi seems harsh, but it was the precursor of legal codes throughout the Mediterranean basin and southwestern Asia.

Elements of Hinduism Emerged in Pre-Aryan India-

Hinduism may be the oldest of the world’s great religions. It is unique in that it has no single founder. Its roots date back to pre-Aryan Indus Valley civilization. Its oral traditions were written down in Vedas. As the Aryans interacted with the indigenous population, the caste system evolved. Hinduism incorporated some Jain and Buddhist ideals. Although urbanization and the Indian Constitution have reduced the impact of the caste system, forms of it continue to survive in South Asia. Today Hinduism is the religion of hundreds of millions of people in South Asia. It has not only shaped the culture of India, but has impacted the art and architecture of much of Southeast Asia.

Hebrews' Exodus Out of Egypt-

The Jews were the first group in the Middle East who had a clearly-defined monotheistic religion. About 1300 BC the Israelites fled Egypt; during their sojourn in the desert, they made a covenant with Yaheh to worship him solely. This pact was formalized in the Ten Commandments that set down the basic beliefs and practices of the Jewish people. After forty years in the desert, the Israelites settled in the uplands of Canaan where they established the Kingdom of Israel. Monotheism is the cornerstone of Judaeo-Christian-Islamic traditions.

Siddhartha Gautama Founded Buddhism-

Siddhartha Gautama was a son of a princely Hindu family who left his wife and children to achieve spiritual fulfillment. Buddha lived a life of asceticism searching for enlightenment. The foundation of Buddhism flows from Hinduism, much like Christianity and Islam trace their roots from Judaism. His message caught on and spread rapidly throughout India and beyond. Buddhism gained adherents along the Silk Road. With the collapse of the Han Empire in China, Buddhism expanded. It offered solace and personal salvation to people living in troubled times. Missionaries spread Buddhism throughout Central Asia, China, Korea, Japan, and Southeast Asia. Buddhism, Christianity and Islam are the most widespread religions in the world today.

Confucius-

During his lifetime (551-479BC), Kong Fuzi, or Confucius, had little or no impact. Disciples codified his teachings with a collection of sayings attributed to Confucius. Confucius established a moral framework that dominated the thinking and practice of China’s rulers, officials and society for over two millennia. His teachings became the dominant social and political philosophy of an educated, landowning elite in China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. In later years, Confucians incorporated many Buddhist ideas into their own thinking. Even in post-Maoist China, Even during the Mao period, Confucian principles still were part of the societal fabric of the world’s most populous nation.

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Democratic Traditions Began in Athens-

The word democracy comes from the Greek word demos, which means “the people”. In the classical 5th century Mediterranean world, the Athenian version of democracy was direct, but women, slaves, and non-citizen males had no role in making major decisions. Athens developed the concepts of civic participation and duty . Athens developed a political system that ultimately shaped subsequent modern world history.

Bantu Migrations-

The migrations of Bantu speaking peoples represent a major population drift within Africa. Drought, desertification, and overpopulation probably caused these migrations. The migration took place over a long period of time (500 BC - 1500 AD.) Originally, the Bantu were a pastoral/Neolithic people, who did not make metal tools. Their survival depended on agriculture, so when they came into contact with peoples who had iron tool-making technologies, the Bantu adopted them. The Bantu people were involved in linguistic and technological changes that are still taking place in Africa. The Bantu migrations resulted in the transfer of Bantu traditions and practices to many different peoples. It provided Africa with a linguistic base allowing an understanding between neighboring Bantu Swahili speakers.

Silk Road Trade-

The Silk Road was the springboard for an exchange of ideas, technologies, foods, and diseases between China, Central Asia, and Southwest Asia. Few travelers actually traversed the entire length of this Eurasian trade network. The Silk Road was not in continuous operation throughout its long history; during periods when China had strong centralized governments (Han, Tang, and Mongol), trade flourished. Modern China is building a contemporary Silk Road that is a reflection of worldwide globalization trends by linking central Asian resources, particularly oil, to the rest of the world.

Ministry of Jesus of Nazareth-

The Jews were the first group in the Middle East who had a clearly-defined monotheistic religion About 1300 BC the Israelites fled Egypt; during their sojourn in the desert, they made a covenant with Yaheh to worship him solely. This pact was formalized in the Ten Commandments that set down the basic beliefs and practices of the Jewish people. After forty years in the desert, the Israelites settled in the uplands of Canaan where they established the Kingdom of Israel. Monotheism is the cornerstone of Judaeo-Christian-Islamic traditions.

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Mayan Civilization-

Between 200-900 AD, the Maya of the Yucatan Peninsula developed a sophisticated, sedentary civilization that produced elaborate pyramids used for religious purposes, a refined pictorial/phonetic hieroglyphic writing system, a complex number system, an advanced calendar, and astronomers who could chart the movement of the planets and stars. The Mayan civilization developed separately and independently from the civilizations of Afro-Eurasia, with which it is often compared. The Maya mysteriously disappeared. Scholars now believe that drought, deforestation, depletion of natural resources, soil exhaustion, and constant warfare caused the fall of this civilization. The sedentary civilizations found in the Americas ultimately made Spanish domination in the Americas possible after the Encounter.

Gupta Empire-India's Golden Age-

In 375, Emperor Chandra Gupta ushered in an era of cultural accomplishments and economic prosperity in India. After a long period of strong Greek influences, the Guptas re-established Indian mores and administrative practices. They lavished their wealth on the arts, sciences, astronomy and mathematics. In the West, Indian numbers became known as Arabic numbers, but the Arabs credited the Indians with the development of a decimal place value system that made basic calculations easier and simpler than the Roman numeral system. The Indian mathematical system was as important an innovation as the development of writing was in Mesopotamia. The Hindu Guptas tolerated Buddhism.

Fall of the Western Roman Empire-

For centuries, migrating non-sedentary nomads from Europe and Asia, attracted by Roman wealth and culture, invaded the Empire. Widespread disorder was followed by civil wars, disease, and famine. A corrupt, top-heavy government was unable to respond effectively to the chaos caused by these invasions. The fall of Rome was not uniform; disintegration was more intense in some parts of the Mediterranean world than it was in others. The Eastern Roman Empire survived and evolved for another thousand years. The Roman Empire left a lasting legacy that shaped subsequent European civilizations in the areas of political institutions, law, language, literature, art, and architecture. Although no single entity rose to assume the Roman mantle, the Roman ideal lingered long after the Empire fell.

Justinian Code-

In 528 AD, Emperor Justinian of the Byzantine Empire appointed a series of judicial commissions to review, reform and publish the essence of the old Roman law. The Emperor also had a collection of legal opinions published, a general law textbook developed, and a compilation of all of his ordinances established. Corpus Juris Civilis was a major contribution to Western Civilization. It became the foundation of most subsequent European legal systems, including the Napoleonic Code.

Tang Dynasty Became the Cultural and Economic Hub of East Asia-

The Tang Dynasty is considered a Golden Age in Chinese imperial history. In its early stages, Tang China was powerful, productive and prosperous. The Tang were able to unify China and develop its economy. The Tang had the wealth needed to promote literature, poetry, architecture, the visual arts, and handicrafts. Trade along the Silk Road prospered. China traded silk, porcelain, and other luxury goods in exchange for pearls, horses, grapes, precious stones, silver, and gold. The Tang exerted tremendous influence on its neighbors, including Korea, Japan, and Vietnam.

Islam-

Muhammad’s flight from Mecca to Medina in 622 AD marks the beginning of the Islamic era. Islam expanded rapidly throughout Afro-Eurasia. The Prophet combined beliefs from his pagan Arabian heritage, Judaism, the Greco-Roman world, and Indian traditions, and provided a powerful new message to millions. In the Islamic world, war and politics became inextricably combined. The Qur’an shapes the conduct of all Believers in their interactions with non-believers. Islam is a direct descendant of the monotheism of Judaism and Christianity. Jerusalem is regarded as a holy city by all three of these religions. Islam emphasizes the concepts of uncompromising monotheism, egalitarianism, and a strong sense of law and community.

Islamic Spain and the Expulsion of the Moors from Granada-

In 711 Arabs and Berbers landed in Gibraltar, conquered Spain and ruled for almost 700 years. Encouraged by the Church, Spanish Christians struggled to regain power. The motivation for the Reconquista was political, economic and religious. In 1492, the kingdoms of Castile and Aragon drove the Moors from Granada. The political pressures created by the Ottoman capture of Constantinople probably hastened Ferdinand and Isabella's mission. During the almost 800 years Islam controlled Spain, it had a tremendous impact on Spain’s institutions and culture including its language, philosophy, law, literature, mathematics, medicine, sciences, and history.

Khmer – Golden Age

Between the 9th and the 13th centuries, a succession of Khmer kings made use of their vast wealth, and the forced labor of slaves to accomplish a monumental building program. Khmer architecture developed and evolved to reflect both Hindu and Buddhist traditions. A huge and sophisticated system of irrigation canals increased and solidified the strength of the Khmer Empire. In 1431, Thai armies captured Angkor, and the Khmer court abandoned the city. Angkor Thom and Angkor Wat are vivid testaments to the influence that Indian political, religious, and cultural traditions had on southeast Asia. Like the Mayan Empire, the Khmer Empire was overtaken by jungle.

Development of Gunpowder-

In the early 11th century, Chinese alchemists discovered a new black powder substance made from saltpeter, sulfur, and charcoal. It was initially used for fireworks. This knowledge was subsequently applied to the development of weapons that propelled clusters of flaming arrows into oncoming cavalry with the intent to dismember men and horses. By the 13th century the Chinese developed the cannon. The Chinese also used gunpowder for excavation purposes in canal and irrigation engineering projects. Europeans learned about this innovation from the Arabs. The Europeans refined this technology to be used in the form of cannons that were used as siege weapons.

Rise and Fall of West African Empires-

Beginning in the 8th century, four great trading empires - Ghana (800-100), Mali (1200-1450), Songhai (1450-1600), and Kanen-Bornu (800-1800) - arose in the grasslands of north-central West Africa. Most of these empires grew out of the fusion of smaller polities. To flourish, they depended on trade, population and military power to dominate their neighbors. Trans-Saharan trade routes were based on the exchange of North African salt for West African gold. Islamic/trans-Saharan trade had a tremendous impact on much of West Africa, but whole regions were totally uninfluenced by the outside world. During the 10th century, the people of Ghana converted to Islam, which was brought to them by their Arab trading partners. Islam brought literacy, the traditions of learning, a code of law, and the usage of currency and credit to west Africa. Mansa Musa (1312-1337), ruler of Mali, journeyed to Mecca and established Timbuktu as an Islamic cultural and learning center. Over time, desertification, weak centralized authority traditions, and attacks from the outside, brought about the decline and downfall of Mali, Songhai and Kanen-Bornu.

Indian Ocean Trade-

For many centuries the Indian Ocean was the center of the Afro-Eurasian spice trade in which Arab merchants were the intermediaries between Europe and the Orient. These merchants crisscrossed the Indian Ocean in dhows borne by monsoon winds carrying spices and other Asian luxury items. The Ming Admiral Zheng He led seven expeditions into the Indian Ocean, but his Ming masters retreated from further contact with the outside world. After 1453, European access to Indian Ocean trade routes was disrupted; Europeans struggled to establish new routes to India, the Spice Islands and beyond. When Vasco da Gama reached India (1498), Europeans became directly involved in Indian Ocean trade.

Mongols Conquered China-

The Mongols from the grasslands of Central Asia swept across Eurasia in the 13th century to create the largest empires in world history. They brutalized the Abbasid Empire and the Russian principalities, but they also established the Pax Mongolia that supported trade along the Silk Road. Kublai Khan established the Yuan dynasty in China, where he essentially kept the Chinese political and economic systems in place.

Travels of Marco Polo and Ibn Battuta-

In the late 13th and early 14th centuries, two intrepid adventurers, Marco Polo (c.1254-1324) and Ibn Battuta (1304-1368) traveled throughout much of the known world, where few others had journeyed. The stability established by the Pax Mongolia made their separate journeys possible. Their accounts stimulated the interest of the literate public to further explore Africa and Asia as possible sources of wealth. To this day, Polo’s and Battuta’s travel accounts remain important sources for historians regarding Afro-Eurasian cross-cultural encounters in late medieval times.

Black Death – Afro-Eurasia-

The Black Death was a pandemic disease that swept across Afro-Eurasia in the 14th century. Some scholars believe that this plague contributed to the decline of the Yuan (Mongol) Dynasty and the subsequent rise of the Ming Dynasty. The plague changed social, economic, and political relationships in Afro-Eurasia. During this period, Europe experienced a series of religious revivals that often included waves of persecution of the Jews. This religious revival may also have contributed to the secularization of Europe.

Ottoman Turks Conquered the Byzantine Empire-

On May 29, 1453, the Ottoman Emperor, Mehmet II, captured Constantinople thus bringing an end to the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire. As a result, the Ottomans established an empire that included most of the Balkans and Asia Minor, which lasted until 1923. The conquest marked the end of the Roman tradition and the end of the Middle Ages. With a new Muslim power in the eastern Mediterranean, established Eurasian trade routes were disrupted, and ultimately, sparked the European Age of Discovery.

The Publishing Revolution-Johannes Gutenberg-

Printing was one of the most important technical advances in history. Printing technologies were first developed in China and Korea and through cultural diffusion ultimately reached Europe. To develop his printing press, Johannes Gutenberg refined a series of technologies. The printing press had a tremendous impact in Europe, where new humanist ideas were opened to a larger audience. With the invention of the printing press, literacy increased in Europe.

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The Columbian Exchange-

When overland trade routes that brought Europe its spices, silks, perfumes and other exotic goods were cut by the Ottomans, Europe sought to establish new trading routes to Asia. Columbus’ voyages brought the Old and New Worlds into permanent contact. His subsequent voyages led to further exploration and colonization. These exchanges of foods, diseases, and technologies proved to be an early step toward the globalization that had major impacts on Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Americas.

The Ottoman Empire Reached Zenith During Reign of Suleiman the Law Giver-

During the reign of Suleiman I, the Ottoman Empire became a major world power. He was a gifted military strategist, a canny politician, and a poet. He systematized legal and administrative institutions; he was well organized and progressive; promotion was based on merit. He implemented vast cultural and architectural projects, but problems such as: unemployment, inflation and heavy taxation ultimately led to the fall of the Ottoman Empire.

Establishment of the Spanish Empire in the Americas-

In 1518, the Spanish crown ordered Hernan Cortez to establish a colony on the mainland of Central America. He launched his invasion with approximately 600 armored men, cannons, and horses, and approximately 150,000 anti-Aztec allies. By 1535, most of central Mexico was under Spanish control; Francisco Pizarro led the next stage of the Spanish assault against the Incan Empire. The Spanish were most interested in gaining power over those areas of the Americas where Native American Indians had already established sedentary societies prior to the Encounter. The conquistadors who came to rule the Spanish empire were far from home, exercising power over strangers. What were these Spanish seeking? What gave Spain the edge? European colonization of the Americas had a devastating impact on the Native American Indian populations, reducing them in some areas by as much as 90%.

Scientific Revolution-

By the 16^th century, scientists began to base their concept of the world on observations and mathematical calculations, which dramatically changed European scientific thought. The work of Nicholas Copernicus, Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton provided coherent alternatives to the earlier, long-established Greek scientific models. The initial response to these new concepts by religious leaders and politicians was to suppress them. The publishing revolution helped to spread new ideas among scholars across Europe. It rested on the belief that observation and experience, not religious and political authorities, are the valid path to knowledge and understanding. The Scientific Revolution provided intellectual inspiration to the Enlightenment of the 18th century.

Industrial Revolution-

The British Industrial Revolution resulted in major technological, socioeconomic, and cultural change. British capitalists had the technological means, government encouragement and the existing trade network needed to industrialize. The Industrial Revolution systemically altered the organization of industry. It has led to urbanization, imperialism, socialism and communism. The Industrial Revolution was replicated globally; some nations became wealthy, while others became comparatively poorer. Even today, some nations are just now undergoing industrialization.

American Revolution-

During the colonial period, but after the French and Indian War, Americans perceived themselves as having grievances against Great Britain that included high taxes and mercantilist restrictions on trade; despite the existence of the House of Burgesses and town meetings, the colonists felt that they had only limited opportunities for self - government. The philosophical foundation of the American Revolution was based on English constitutional law and Enlightenment philosophies that emphasized that governments were founded to protect life, liberty and property, and that the people had the right to rebel when the monarch violated these natural rights. The colonies revolted and created a new political system. The new government guaranteed basic freedoms and extended political rights to most adult white males. The new government did not reject slavery, nor did it extend legal and political rights to women. Property holding was widespread, the class structure was fluid, and economic expansion ensured that common people benefited from independence. The American Revolution impacted subsequent revolutions in Europe and Latin America.

French Revolution-

The French revolution had two major components; the first was an aristocratic revolt that sought greater power for its class and a second phase that was eventually transformed into a more popular revolt led by the bourgeoisie. This second phase of the revolution espoused ideas beyond what the British elite had. Alarmed by what was happening in France, neighboring powers declared war. The French Revolution challenged the traditional hereditary monarchy that had been the basic, enduring, pattern of government across time; it ignited a spirit of nationalism in France that led to revolutions throughout the entire Atlantic Basin and beyond.

Status of Women/Women's Rights-

In early human communities, and in many societies today, men dominate Many, but not all, Neolithic societies tended to be patriarchal leading to gender inequities. The Industrial Revolution dramatically changed gender roles by engaging women in employment outside of their homes. The Age of Revolutions slowly broadened suffrage, first to include men of property, next adult males, and lastly women. The contributions women made during World War I rendered arguments against female suffrage unrealistic. On December 18, 1979 the United Nations General Assembly resolved in its Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women that “discrimination against women violates the principles of equality of rights and respect for human dignity, is an obstacle to the participation of women, on equal terms with men, in the political, social, economic, and cultural life of their countries, hampers the growth of the prosperity of society and the family, and makes more difficult the full development of the potentialities of women in the service of their countries and of humanity.”

Latin American Independence Movements-

The Latin American independence movements were led by disenchanted middle class creoles, felt that they could manage and direct their own political and economic destinies. These independence movements were influenced by such earlier revolutions as the Puritan, American and French revolutions. Between 1819-1825, nine new political units emerged in Latin America, Central America and the Caribbean; Spanish and Portuguese power was broken in the Western Hemisphere, but the traditions of absolutism and aristocracy lingered on. Wealthy landowners controlled the new nations, leaving matzos, mulattoes, and Native American Indians powerless. Latin American development has been hampered by European and North American interference in their political and economic affairs.

Transportation / Communications Revolutions-

Two remarkable engineering feats, the Suez Canal, linking the Mediterranean to the Red Sea, the Indian Ocean and Pacific Oceans (1869), and the Panama Canal, linking the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans (1914) became important links in international trade that reduced commercial costs and shipping times, leading to further globalization. Such inventions as steamships, railroads, and telegraphs in the 19th century, and telephones, radios, television, movies, automobiles, airplanes, computers and the internet in the 20th century, touched the lives of billions of human beings by giving them direct access to information. In a globalized world, political and economic systems operate differently where long distances no longer matter.

Forced Labor / Slavery / Abolition of Slavery-

Historically, many societies have used forced labor to build their economics, to exert political power, and to intimidate. Given the physical conditions of plantation work in the Americas, Europeans sought to replace indentured laborers from Europe and resistant Native American Indian labor with a cheap source of labor in Africa. The slave trade had political, economic, and social impacts in Africa. Throughout the 19th century, the Trans Atlantic slave trade led to an influx of enslaved Africans that dramatically changed societies in the Americas and the United States. Throughout the 19th century, the abolition movement found adherents in Europe, Australia, and the Americas.

Sino-British Opium Wars-

Because the British had an unfavorable balance of trade with China, the British began shipping Indian opium to China to the obtain silk, spices, porcelain and tea that the British public demanded. The opium trade caused major health, social, and economic problems in China. China forbade the sale of opium, and attempted to turn back English merchant vessels that carried opium; two separate wars were fought between China and Britain over this issue. Chinese military technology could not repel the British, and as a result, they were forced to accept a humiliating, unfavorable treaty. The Opium Wars began the “unequal relationship” between China and the West.

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Meiji Restoration-

During the 19th century, Tokugawa Japan, like other old regimes, experienced the decline of a once successful government. Commodore Perry’s arrival in Japan was a catalyst in bringing down the Tokugawa. A group of aristocrats overthrew the Tokugawa and created a new central government that was quite revolutionary. Meiji Japan adopted policies of modernization and industrialization that transformed Japan. Japan became a modern nation state that adopted a policy of imperialism, which ultimately led to conflict with other nations including the United States. This imperialistic policy changed political and economic relationships in the Far East and transformed Japan’s relations with China, Russia, and Great Britain.

Scientific Breakthroughs-

From approximately 1850 to the present a series of breakthroughs in the fields of physics, biology, engineering, chemistry, and medicine have revolutionized scientific thinking. The work of Charles Darwin profoundly challenged Victorian religious and scientific beliefs that to this day spark heated debates. Sigmund Freud founded modern psychoanalysis; Albert Einstein articulated a series of theories that broadened our knowledge of the physical universe; Alexander Fleming identified penicillin. Exploration of space expanded human understanding of the nature of the universe; Francis Crick and James Watson cracked the DNA code. Scientific breakthroughs cannot be categorized as one single even, development, or era. Rather, they are a series of developments that may each have led to significant change.

Fall of the Qing Empire-

By 1911 the Qing (Manchu) dynasty was faced with a spiraling population, land shortages, famine, deepening poverty of the peasantry, inflation, and greedy local officials. The landed gentry felt that the dynasty was incapable of preserving order. Puyi, the last Qing emperor, abdicated his throne. For over two millennia, China had experienced a series of dynastic cycles; the failure of the Manchu marked the end of China’s long dynastic tradition. China had long been the hub of East Asian cultural, political and economic systems; new Asian models are emerging. For a brief period, China, under Sun Yat Sen, experimented with democracy, but this experiment failed and China lapsed into an era of warlords that lasted until the end of World War II. Mao’s Communist experiment has altered its course. What role will China play in the 21st century?

World War I-

World War I began as a localized Balkan crisis, and later became a larger conflict. New technologies such as: the magazine rifle, tanks, submarines, chemical weapons, and synthetic explosives made World War I far deadlier than previous wars. The war bogged down into a deadly stalemate. The death toll, both civilian and military, was far greater than any previous European conflict. Between 8 - 10 million young men were killed. By the end of World War I, once powerful empires collapsed; European dominance in the world was eroded; the United States emerged as a world power, and new European nations were created; populations were dislocated, creating millions of refugees; an influenza pandemic swept the world.

Genocide-

According to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, approved by the General Assembly of the United Nation on December 9, 1948, the crime of “genocide means any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole, or in part, a national ethnical, racial or religious group such as: a) killing members of the group; b) causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; c) deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; d) imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; e) forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.” From the dawn of the 20th century, a series of executions, deportations, and massacres has dominated the world stage, including the Armenian massacres of 1915-1916, the Holocaust, and the killing fields of Cambodia and Darfur. The question remains, what actions can be taken to prevent genocide?”

Bolshevik Revolution-

Csar Nicolas II failed to address the crisis facing Russia in 1917, and as a result, he was forced to abdicate. His abdication marked the passing of the old political order that had dominated European and Russian history for centuries. V.I. Lenin and his Bolsheviks seized power using the slogan, “peace, land and bread.” They abolished private property, granted land to the peasants, and nationalized industry and finance. The Soviet Union became a command economy that challenged capitalism for much of the 20th century. When the Soviet system collapsed in 1991, its fall brought on the new era of economic globalization.

Fall of Ottoman Empire and the Creation of Secular Turkey-

At the end of World War I, French, British and Greek forces occupied much of the former Ottoman Empire. New nation-states were created in the Middle East, which satisfied the imperialistic leaning of the victorious European powers, but which had ongoing and lasting repercussions. Mustafa Kemal, the new Turkish leader, adopted a policy to make Turkey a modern, secular nation-state. He introduced western laws, and the Latin alphabet, gave women civil equality, and even adopted western style clothing. Ataturk’s reforms took hold in urban areas, but in rural areas, where Islamic traditions were strong, people resisted change. Many of the issues that the modern secular Turkish state faced still confront much of the Islamic world. The issue remains how to balance traditional values with modernization.

World War II-

World War II was fought in four theatres of combat: (1) Asia, (2) the Pacific, (3) Europe, and (4) the Eastern front. To win the war, the Axis powers had to win quickly, but they lacked the raw materials, manpower, and oil to do so. Six million Jews and approximately 7 million Slavs and gypsies were murdered by Germany in the Holocaust. The United States and the Soviet Union emerged from the war as superpowers; the U.S. industrial complex became the most competitive in the world. Due to economic conditions existing in Europe at the end of the war and the rise of nationalism in former colonies, Britain and France lost their colonial empires. Germany lost its colonies, leading to the decolonization of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa, the creation of new nation states, and further movement toward globalization.

United States Dropped Atomic Bombs on Japan-

In 1942, the Roosevelt administration launched the Manhattan Project, which that would develop the technology to make it possible to build an atomic bomb. In just three years, the Project achieved its goal. The War in Europe ended on May 8, 1945; the focus of the war was shifted to the Pacific. The U.S. launched an aggressive campaign against Japan’s industrial strength. President Harry S. Truman made the decision to use the bomb rather than launch a massive land invasion. On August 6, 1945, the first atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima; a second bomb was dropped on Nagasaki, causing Japan to surrender surrendered on September 2, 1945. The human and environmental impacts were horrific. The atomic bomb opened a new era in human history.

United Nations Founded-

In 1944, representatives from the United States, Great Britain, the Soviet Union, and China drafted specific proposals that were ratified as the United Nations Charter on October 24, 1945. The purpose of the United Nations is to maintain international peace and security; to develop friendly relations among nations; to achieve international cooperation in solving economic, social, cultural, and humanitarian problems, and to promote respect for human rights and basic freedoms. It was hoped that by establishing the UN, worldwide problems associated with the post-WWI and Great Depression periods would not recur. It was hoped that the UN could re-globalize the world in a less anarchic way than the defunct League of Nation had managed or not managed to do. With the financial and military support of the U.S., international agreements and institutions were established to support the UN’s mission. The United Nations’ peace keeping role has not proved to be very successful, but in the areas of eradicating disease, poverty, and development, the UN has been much more successful.

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Cold War Era-

The Cold War world was defined by the threat of nuclear destruction brought about the emergence of the military, political and economic rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union. Competing alliance systems such as the Warsaw Pact and NATO arose. The period was marked by confrontations in Korea, Vietnam, and Afghanistan, and surrogate superpower rivalries in Egypt, Congo, Angola, Chile, Iran, Iraq and Guatemala. It reflects a period in human history when the colonial empires that existed in the 19^th and 20^th centuries were dismantled and new independent nations were created. These new nations were often confronted by almost insurmountable problems such as industrialization, rapid global population growth, and a series of economic crises. Political, economic, and social agreements brought people around the world together on peacekeeping, human rights, and gender equity issues.

Nation Building and Decolonization-

During the Cold War Era, many former colonies in Asia, Africa and Latin America became independent. These new nations faced similar decolonization issues such as: which individuals and/or groups actually held power; who really controlled their separate economies, and what economic development policies they should adopt. Nation building represents a significant change from a world dominated by the European imperialist powers to a world in which power is shared by many independent nations. The question today is, “What role will these new nations play in the 21^st century global political and economic order?”

Communists Assumed Power in China-

After WWII and years of civil war, the People’s Republic was formed in 1949. The People’s Republic of China hoped to turn China into a major industrial power. Initiatives such as Mao’s Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution failed. Industry, agriculture, and social institutions were collectivized; widespread famine killed millions of Chinese. After Mao Zedong’s death, China embraced market liberalizations. Today, China remains a dictatorship but looks radically different than it did when it was ruled by strict Maoist principles. It has a mixed economy under a political dictatorship. A mass migration from rural to urban areas is taking place.

Rise of Global Terrorism-

Across the globe, terrorism casts a lethal shadow. The following groups are among those currently on the U.S. government’s list of Designated Foreign Terrorist Organizations.

Abu Nidal Organization (a.k.a. Fatah) – Iraq
Abu Sayyaf Group – Philippines (?)
Al-Qaeda – worldwide cells
Armed Islamic Group (a.k.a. GIA) – Algeria
Aum Shinrikyo – Japan
Basque Fatherland and Liberty (a.k.a. ETA) – Spain and France
Real Irish Republican Army – Ireland
Hamas – West Bank and Gaza
Hezbollah – Lebanon
Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan – Tajikistan
Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam – Sri Lanka
National Liberation Army – Colombia and Venezuela
Palestinian Islamic Jihad – Israel, West Bank and Gaza
Revolutionary Organization 17 November – Greece
Shining Path (Sendero Luminoso) – Peru

The activities of foreign terrorist organizations include: kidnappings, assassinations, bombings, massacres, ambushes, rocket attacks, guerrilla warfare, bank robberies, suicide bombings, village raids, drug trafficking, air plane hijackings, attacks on diplomatic and commercial facilities, car bombings, chemical attacks on subways, and indiscriminate shootings. Terrorist organizations are independent, but they also often interact with each other. Terrorism has economic, political, social, and psychological effects on the world community.

Communism Collapsed in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union-

Much of the economic woes of the Soviet Union in the late 1980s can be traced to its failed invasion of Afghanistan and the cost of its military rivalry with the United States. In 1985, Mikail Gorbachev gained control of a Soviet government that was war weary, suffering from economic decay and vocal protests against the government at all levels. The election of Lech Walesca and the Fall of the Berlin Wall illustrates the discontent felt by the subject peoples in Eastern Europe. In August 1991, the Soviet Baltic republics declared their independence from the USSR, and in December of that year, Russia, Ukraine and Belarus declared the Soviet Union dead. Boris Yeltsin attempted to revamp the Russian economy by adopting a free market system. Yeltsin resigned in December 1999, and in 2000, Vladimir Putin was elected president. Russia’s economy shrank, and Russian industries proved to be less competitive internationally; the former Soviet satellites, however, proved to be more completive in the global market place.

China and India (Chindia) Emerging Economic Powers-

Since the early 1990s, India and China (Chindia) have become economically competitive with the United States and have enjoyed fast-growing economies that are likely to become great powers in the 21st century. According to Clyde Pestowitz, wealth and power are rapidly shifting to Asia. The collapse of the communist economic systems brought billions of new capitalists into the world economy. This collapse encouraged India to abandon its mixed economy and to adopt a less regulated more capitalistic economy. The global economy is an integrated one that offers new opportunities to the peoples of the non-Western world.

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Global AIDS Epidemic-

Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) was first identified in 1981. AIDS is a devastating disease that leaves its victims helpless against infections, cancers and neurological disorders. By the end of the 1990s the number of AIDS cases in the United States was declining, but approximately 40 million people suffer from HIV in Africa and Asia where conditions of poverty and poor health care services hinder treatment of poor, illiterate populations. Recent breakthroughs hold the promise of a single pill that will inhibit the virus. The devastation caused by AIDS can be likened to the Plague in the 14^th century and the Great Influenza outbreak after WW I. Today, there is a dark side of globalization in which endemic diseases such as Avian Flu can, due to globalization, become endemic worldwide.

Terrorists Attacked New York City and the Pentagon-

According to the scholar Bernard Lewis, the attack on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon in Virginia “opened a new phase in the relations between East and West.” On September 11, 2001, the on-going problems of the Middle East erupted in an attack on the United States. These attacks resulted in the loss of nearly 3000 lives. The U.S. responded by attacking Afghanistan where the Islamic Taliban government harbored Osama bin Laden, the man suspected of masterminding the attacks. Bin Laden's terrorist network has been linked to other terrorist acts in Kenya, Tanzania, and Yemen. Weapons of mass destruction have heightened global concerns. President George W. Bush declared a War on Terrorism and Osama bin Laden became the world’s most wanted man. The domestic security and surveillance policy that the president implemented has raised questions of constitutionality of these policies.

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